What’s Included
Lorem ipsum all levels have access to Green Street’s award-winning data and tools
What’s Included
Lorem ipsum all levels have access to Green Street’s award-winning data and tools
A
A metric crafted by the REIT industry to evaluate a REIT’s earnings potential. A key part of AFFO is that it acknowledges landlords must constantly reinvest (capex) in their properties to maintain their competitive position.
A valuation metric used to compare REIT valuation by dividing a given year’s AFFO/sh and the share price. AFFO yield may also serve as a warning regarding the quality of a company’s real estate portfolio, balance sheet, or management team.
A metric used to measure the value-add of an investment manager by comparing the manager’s performance to that of a risk-free investment or a broad index. Also known as the ‘excess return’ provided by an investment or fund.
A category of investments that includes arbitrage vehicles, commodities, distressed securities, hedge funds, managed funds, oil-and-gas partnerships, private equity, real estate, timber, venture capital, carbon credits or other assets whose returns aren’t typically correlated to the stock and bond markets.
The cognitive bias associated with fixating on a particular number or value, typically an arbitrary benchmark figure such as an expected price or economic forecast. New information is interpreted relative to the reference point instead of objectively.
An income metric used most commonly in the retail and industrial sectors that measures rent to be paid by a tenant over a 12-month period. It excludes property operating expense reimbursements, which are expenses borne by the tenant rather than the landlord and passed through as incurred.
A measure of performance that accounts for the compounded growth in value and dividends received over a period of years, divided by the number of years. Investors prefer measuring performance using annualized return as it reflects the true return of an investment.
The total market value of all the assets controlled by an investment manager. Note that regulatory AUM is calculated on a gross basis, including leverage, and thus can be much higher than a manager’s net investor capital.
B
A process used to estimate the effectiveness of an investment strategy or quantitative model by applying it it in past periods.
A type of loan that does not fully amortize over the loan’s term. A balloon payment is usually required to pay off the remaining principal balance at maturity date or a refinancing to a new loan.
Buildings at the bottom of a cell tower site that house tenant equipment and generators.
A broad term used to measure risk. Most commonly defined as the sensitivity of an investment relative to a benchmark, with higher betas implying higher risk and vice versa. See also Market Beta.
A Green Street proprietary weighted average cap rate for a REIT based on all real estate segments in which that REIT participates. Generally, cap rates listed for REITs covered by Green Street are blended cap rates of multiple properties and markets.
A valuation approach grounded in company- or market-level research first and then the broader sector and economy. Green Street employs a bottom-up approach to determine company- and market-level recommendations.
Refers to physical stores that customers visit in-person for commerce. See also Ecommerce.
A short-term credit facility used by companies or individuals until permanent financing is secured or an existing obligation is removed.
A type of residential property built specifically for the rental market.
A fast-growing industrial segment, reflecting what most investors envision as industrial real estate. These large, single-story structures range in size from 250k to well over 1M square feet and are primarily used for the storage and distribution of goods across a wide geographic area.
A type of residential property that is not purpose built and that an investor buys with the intention to lease to tenants. These assets are often in buildings with both tenants and owner-occupiers. Lower quality, fewer amenities, and little lease flexibility are all common traits of these assets.
C
The estimated price at which a property or a group of properties would transact.
The costs associated with the long-term ownership of commercial real estate are typically underestimated. Maintaining the competitive position of a property usually requires a substantial capital reinvestment by the owner. Cap-ex includes maintenance and leasing costs. Many of these expenditures are capitalized – not expensed – for accounting purposes. Nevertheless, they have a sizeable impact on property level cash flows. In Europe, we may quote the number as a percent of NRI. This is not comparable to the US cap-ex as a percent of NOI. Green Street normalizes these cap-ex items to reflect an expected average over the life of the building. Cap-ex is often quoted as a percentage of nominal NOI (i.e., NOI before cap-ex).
An area within a wireless carrier’s network that is able to be serviced by an antenna. Cell sites are referred to as “rings”.
A vertical structure built on a parcel of land, installed on a utility pole, or attached to a building. Telecommunication equipment (i.e., antennas and/or radios), responsible for transmitting and receiving radio waves, reside at the top of the structure and are connected via coaxial/fiber cabling at the base of the tower to various wireless networks and the internet.
A loan on a mobile or manufactured home, not including the land on which it sits. Assets used as collateral for a chattel mortgage must be movable or non-permanent in nature.
Measures REIT’s geographic exposure to climate event risks (e.g., flood, drought, wildfire etc.).
A mutual fund with a fixed number of shares outstanding that are publicly traded at a premium or discount to the fund’s net asset value.
A leveraged investment vehicle that issues notes to fund the purchase of pools of bonds, loans, preferred stock, hedge-fund shares or other CDOs. CDOs can take a variety of forms, including collateralized bond obligations (CBOs), which are backed almost entirely by other debt securities, collateralized loan obligations (CLOs), which are backed entirely by corporate loans, and collateralized fund obligations (CFOs). Despite the similarity of the term, collateralized mortgage obligations (CMOs) are not part of the CDO category.
A type of collateralized debt obligation (CDO) that is backed by zero-coupon bonds to fund the purchase of shares in hedge funds, private-equity funds or multi-manager vehicles known as funds of funds. CFOs are often structured as zero-coupon bonds that make lump-sum payments by redeeming the underlying fund-of-fund shares at maturity. Others have been arranged as convertible issues.
A type of Enterprise Data Center specifically catering to smaller data center tenants. Leases tend to be short (<5 years), and are usually for less than half a megawatt. Tenants lease individual racks or cabinets in a multi-tenant suite, rather than an entire suite.
A Green Street proprietary time series of U.S. commercial property values that captures the prices at which commercial real estate transactions are currently being negotiated and contracted.
A type of retail strip center that sells general merchandise or convenience-oriented goods/services. Offers a wider range of apparel and other soft goods than neighborhood centers. The center is usually configured in a straight line, as a strip, or may be laid out in an L or U shape, depending on the site and design.
Compares compliance costs globally under a standardized regulation framework. Baseline fees are from NYC’s Local Law 97 (one of first carbon limits in the U.S.), adjusted for differences in absolute rent between property sectors and geographies (i.e., CBD locations have higher rents, and theoretically higher fines). Mandated emission reductions and potential penalties can vary materially across sectors and the existence of regulations does not mean all sectors will be treated equally. Represents 10% of Green Street’s “E” Sensitivity Score.
A Green Street proprietary metric used to assess balance sheet risk. Excessive near-term maturities result in considerably higher comprehensive leverage, whereas the use of non-recourse debt reduces overall balance sheet risk and thus, the ratio. Lastly, unfunded liabilities (e.g., development) are treated as a contingent liability and a contingent asset, which pushes the comprehensive leverage ratio higher.
A cognitive bias where one has tendency to seek and interpret information that confirms one’s own existing ideas, beliefs, or theories and ignore or undervalue information that contradicts their beliefs.
The cumulative cost of in-process development projects incurred since inception. CIP should include the cost of the land and other “soft costs” such as capitalized interest and professional fees, although not all companies do.
A yield quoted as Net Rental Income / Property Value and excludes Purchaser’s Costs in the denominator.
A corporate bond that can be exchanged, at the option of the holder, for a specific number of the company’s common or preferred shares.
The collection of mechanisms, processes and relations used to operate a corporation. Green Street publishes proprietary Corporate Governance scores for REITs under coverage and these scores can influence our REIT valuation methodology.
A general term describing the rate of return required. From a company’s view, considered to be the minimum required rate of return necessary to make a project NPV positive. From an investor’s point of view, it is the required rate of return on a security or portfolio used to assess available opportunities.
The effective interest rate a company pays on its debt obligations such as bonds, loans, etc.
The required rate of return to compensate for associated risk in an equity investment (e.g., common stock).
A unique form of student housing characterized by off-campus communities of detached cottage-style student living units. In this accommodation, students often share community amenities with other residents.
A line of credit extended by a bank or other financial institution to a government, corporation, or individual that allows one to draw funds as needed.
The risk associated with fluctuations in currency exchange rates. Many institutions hedge currency risk through the use of derivatives.
An accounting standard to assess how financial institutions account for expected credit losses and establish credit loss reserves. It replaces ALLL (allowance for loan and lease losses) standard. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) CECL standard will apply to any institution issuing credit, including banks, savings institutions, credit unions and holding companies filing under GAAP accounting standards. The CECL standard implementation has been pushed back to January 2023.
The sum of common dividends paid by a company plus changes in NAV/Share over time. CVNI is calculated similarly to total returns, but designed to measure theoretical NAV growth if dividends are reinvested in the company.
A bank, trust company or other financial institution that holds and protects a fund’s assets and provides other services, including collecting money from investors, distributing redemption proceeds, maintaining margin accounts, registering investments and exercising options.
D
A highly specialized facility designed to house racks of mission-critical computer servers and the associated infrastructure required.
Calculated as annual NOI divided by annual loan payment.
A measure of leverage used to assess a company’s balance sheet risk and financial health. Often quoted in terms of a multiple (e.g., 1.2x). Green Street calculates as Net Debt / Forward 12 month Cash EBITDA
A financial instrument whose performance is linked to an underlying security, index or financial instrument. Examples include forward contracts, futures contracts, swaps and options.
A Green Street proprietary estimate for the required profit margin on a particular development. Hurdle rates vary by sector and pre-leasing levels and are based on the perception of risk associated with each project in the development pipeline.
Properties that are under construction or redevelopment and are not ready for occupancy by a tenant.
Measures the NOI expected to be generated from a development property upon stabilization as a percentage of development cost. Total development cost should include land and the cost of capital during the lease-up period.
Repairs or cash payment made by a tenant upon leaving previously rented space. Under fully Repairing and Insuring lease covenants (in the U.K.), a tenant is required to reinstate the property back to the condition when originally leased, after allowing for reasonable wear and tear. Generally does not apply if the property is to be redeveloped upon the tenant vacating the premises.
A vehicle in which investors give a manager or broker discretion to buy and sell securities, futures or other assets on their behalf, either with or or without restrictions.
Wireless communication systems that use small antennas (both indoors and outdoors) to “fill-in” coverage needs when existing macro tower sites are not available.
A valuation metric typically used to compare dividend return potential. Represented as the expected annual dividend per share as a percentage of the current share price. Where Dividend Pace = Four times the most recent quarterly dividend
A metric that measures the percent of a REIT’s common dividend that is covered by recurring cash flow. Green Street measures the dividend payout ratio after factoring in normalized cap-ex (i.e., based on AFFO).
A basic on or off-campus accommodation that is primarily owned by universities. These properties are leased by the bed and have shared facilities for residents to use.
An uncommon REIT structure where each asset is held by the REIT and its contributor separately. A Down-REIT has the appearance of a REIT with several joint ventures. See also Up-REIT.
E
A valuation metric used to compare the return potential of securities and calculated as as a percentage of share price. This metric uses FFO or AFFO in assessing the “earnings” yield of real estate companies.
A measure of operating performance defined as Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization. Often used in the valuation of Hotel REITs as an alternative to Net Operating Income (NOI) and in assessing the cash flow generation of any portfolio as part of calculating debt/EBITDA.
The buying and selling of goods over the internet. See also Brick-and-Mortar Retail
A superior measure of the estimated yield of a transaction or property that takes cap-ex into consideration. Economic cap rates provide a much better tool for comparing properties that have high cap-ex (e.g., office) against those with low cap-ex (e.g., self-storage). Green Street uses an economic cap rate as the starting point for Internal Rate of Return (IRR) calculations.
The forward 12-month estimated income from a property or portfolio after operating expenses and cap-ex are deducted from cash rents. Economic NOI provides a better estimate of underlying cash flow than nominal NOI. See also Net Operating Income (NOI) and Nominal Cash Operating Income
A type of enterprise data center located very close to end-users that attempts to offer the lowest possible latency experience (time it takes for data to travel).
Office density based on total workers supported by the office (total office space / total employee base).
A rent metric designed to measure the economics of a lease after adjusting for free rent and other landlord concessions. The adjustments are generally made on a straight-line basis, amortized to the earlier of the life of the lease or first break.
The amount of ‘built up’ rent growth (or decline) that has yet to be captured by existing leases. Refers to NOI generated if all leases were instantaneously marked to market on a occupancy-neutral basis.
A U.K term to describe business rates (a.k.a. property taxes) paid by a landlord on space that is vacant. By contrast, in the U.S., landlords have always been responsible for property taxes (although they may pass through to the tenant) on a given building whether it is rented or not. Generally, the tax liability in the U.K. is over 30% of headline rent vs about half as much in the U.S.
Measures energy intensity in the context of higher energy costs and emissions intensity. Energy intensity is measured by kWh/ft2, while emissions intensity is measured with kgCO2e/ft2. Investors focused on net-zero goals will likely penalize more energy intensive sectors in their underwriting. Represents 50% of Green Street’s “E” Sensitivity Score.
Data centers that serve the needs of corporate IT departments and large-scale Internet enterprises. These facilities are more exposed to new competition than “network-dense” data centers.
Combining “E” Sector Sensitivity with Landlord Bargaining Power provides a comprehensive view of how landlords will share “E” costs with Tenants which is reflected in Green Street’s “E” Impact score.
A term often used as an alternative for sustainability and socially responsible investing. Refers to the consideration of environmental, social, and governance factors in the investment decision process.
This yield incorporates an adjustment to the EPRA NIY in respect of the contractually agreed expiration of rent-free periods or other unexpired lease incentives such as discounted rent periods and step rents. See also Net Initial Yield.
A key measure to enable meaningful measurement of the changes in a company’s operating costs. Calculated as administrative & operating costs (including costs of direct vacancy) divided by gross rental income.
A key EPRA measure of a company’s underlying operating results, taking into account the financial instruments with a potential dilutive impact at the closing date, and an indication of the extent to which current dividend payments are supported by earnings.
Represents the shareholders’ value under a disposal scenario, where deferred tax, financial instruments and certain other adjustments are calculated to the full extent of their liability, net of any resulting tax.
An EPRA metric for net initial yield calculated as net rental income divided by market value or price of property plus any applicable (estimated) purchaser’s costs.
An EPRA NAV metric whereby the calculation assumes that entities buy and sell assets, thereby crystalizing certain levels of deferred tax liability. This metric is most similar to Green Street’s Spot NAV calculation.
An EPRA NAV metric adjusted to reflect the fair value of debt and derivatives and to include deferred taxation on revaluations. As of October 2019, both EPRA NAV and EPRA NNNAV has have been replaced by EPRA Net Reinstatement Value, EPRA Net Tangible Assets, and EPRA Net Disposal Value.
A measure of investment property space that is vacant, based on ERV. Estimated Market Rental Value (ERV) of vacant space divided by ERV of the whole portfolio.
The total potential rent for a property leased at current market rental rates (typically assuming 100% occupancy) and if applicable, calculated net of ground rent.
An association that represents Europe’s publicly listed property companies. Similar to NAREIT in the U.S.
The likelihood that an investment’s value will change as the result of unexpected events, such as corporate restructurings, a takeover, regulatory shifts or natural disasters.
This metric can be expressed either as a dollar amount or as a percentage. Expected Loss % is calculated by multiplying Probability of Default and Loss-given-default. If expressed as a dollar amount, the Expected Loss % will be multiplied by the loan balance.
F
The price at which a single unit of a security would trade between parties that don’t have interests in the issue. Fair value does not take into account various premiums or discounts that would be assessed for large or illiquid positions.
These industrial properties can have a mix of office, warehouse, manufacturing, and showroom space. Flex buildings are popular in technology industries as their hybrid structures allow for various functions in a single location.
The ratio of building area to ground area. Land values, zoning, and entitlements are often quoted in these terms.
Franchise Value represents the value management can add to a company above and beyond that of which is captured in NAV. Total returns, Management Value Add, Balance Sheet Acumen and any recent impact from management changes are used by analysts to estimate a company’s Franchise Value. It is also the largest component in calculating a REIT’s warranted premium/discount to peers in Green Street’s Pricing Model.
A form of tenant incentive granted by the landlord to induce a tenant to complete a lease deal. It is generally a period at the beginning of a lease when a tenant has control of a unit but does not pay rent. This is generally measured in months.
A common U.K. lease provision specifying that most building maintenance and insurance costs will be borne by the tenant. The tenant incurs some costs directly and is billed by the landlord via the Service Charge for other costs.
An investment vehicle whose holdings consist of shares in hedge funds and private-equity funds.
An analysis of the fundamental factors that drive a company’s earnings to arrive at an approximation of its value. Common fundamental factors include operating performance, cash flow generation, management effectiveness, and balance sheet risk.
A metric crafted by the REIT industry to evaluate a REIT’s earnings potential. A key flaw in FFO is that it fails to acknowledge that landlords must constantly reinvest (capex) in their properties to maintain their competitive position. Also see Adjusted Funds from Operations (AFFO)
G
The overhead expense burden of a company to manage day-to-day operations.
Key global cities that are typically characterized by robust job growth, high median household income, high-tech orientation, and a higher cost of living.
Another term for measuring leverage and refers to the extent to which a company’s operations are funded by lenders vs. equity holders.
The individual or firm that organizes and manages a limited partnership, such as a hedge fund, and assumes unlimited legal responsibility for its liabilities.
The total return (capital value + income) version of Green Street’s CPPI. See Commercial Property Price Index (CPPI).
Calculated based on average emission intensity of the various grids; emissions intensities rely on grid-average emission factors that would be used in location-based Scope 2 GHG emissions calculations. This score is reflective of REIT’s average exposure to market grid emissions intensity and is not reflective of individual REIT’s utility choices and energy usage. Represents 10% of Green Street’s “E” Sensitivity Score.
A type of retail center with a grocery store as an anchor. Historically, these centers have had relatively resilient foot traffic as consumer’s have to buy food regardless of macroeconomic conditions.
A yield metric that is calculated as gross rent divided by property value.
Represents the total floor area within a property and typically excludes common space. Within the mall sector, GLA is subdivided between Anchors and Shops because of rent disparities.
Rent Receivables (including contractual rent increases, if any) adjusted for the amortization of Free Rent, Tenant Improvements borne by the landlord, and Leasing Commissions (if not reflected in Property Outgoings).
Rent paid by the landlord (in this case a leaseholder) of a building to the owner of the land on which the building sits. This is more common in the U.K. than the U.S.
H
The amount by which a lender discounts the market value of collateral pledged by a borrower.
Rent paid by a tenant without giving effect to Free Rent or other concessions and ignores ground rent (if applicable).
A private investment vehicle with the primary objective to preserve investors’ capital by taking positions whose returns are not closely correlated to those of the broader financial markets. Such vehicles may employ leverage, short sales, a variety of derivatives and other hedging techniques to reduce risk and increase returns. Usually only open to high net worth individuals with a large tolerance for risk.
Primary pedestrian shopping street in a town or city centre.
Markets where development is difficult and expensive due to regulation, high land costs, and/or lack of available sites. Commercial real estate in high barrier markets generally produces superior long-term NOI growth relative to low barrier markets, but with greater short-term volatility. It is rare for a market to truly have high barriers to new supply.
A provision serving to ensure that a fund manager only collects incentive fees on the highest NAV previously attained at the end of any prior fiscal year.
The required minimum rate of return on a project or investment in order to offset its associated costs. The rate is determined by assessing the cost of capital, risks, and other factors that may directly affect an investment.
Large business-critical data centers designed to efficiently support robust, scalable applications and are often associated with big cloud companies such as Google, Amazon, Facebook, IBM, and Microsoft.
I
A measure used to describe the property yield embedded in a REIT’s current stock price. Represents the cap rate at which Green Street’s NAV-per-share estimate equals the current share price.
The discount rate where the present value of expected cash flows equals the current share price.
The economic cap rate at which Green Street’s NAV per-share estimate equals the current share price. See also Implied Cap Rate.
The discount rate that equates estimated discounted cash flows and the net present value implied by the share price. As with the standard Green Street IRR, cash flows for an implied IRR are derived from the economic cap rate (see: Economic Cap Rate), and both near- and long- term same-store NOI growth rates. The implied IRR uses an assumed net present value as reflected by the discount or premium to gross asset value assigned by the market. See also Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
A measure used to describe the implied value of property (either by square feet or residential unit or hotel room) embedded in a REIT’s current stock price. Calculated as the value per unit at which Green Street’s NAV-per-share estimate equals the current stock price.
Office density based on workers in the office on any given day (total office space / average employees in office per day).
Current rent paid by a tenant without giving effect to Free Rent or other concessions and ignores ground rent (if applicable). See Headline Rent.
The day on which a fund starts trading.
A specialized fund that invests in public assets and infrastructure including toll roads, airports, electric & utility services, gas pipelines, water & sewage, waste management, and agriculture.
The discount rate that sets estimated discounted cash flows equal to the initial investment. For properties, portfolios, markets, or REITs, Green Street bases initial cash flows on economic cap rates while intermediate cash flows are based on the initial cash flow and grown at the corresponding NOI growth rates. Terminal values are calculated by applying a long-term growth rate, which is typically a negative spread to estimated inflation (i.e., long-term growth is less than inflation).
Financial reporting standards for most jurisdictions outside of the U.S and set by the London-based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They constitute a standardised way of describing a company’s financial performance and position such that financial statements are understandable and comparable across international boundaries.
The “true” value of an asset that can differ from its current market value.
The properties owned by a landlord that are not development properties or trading properties. Similar to Operating Properties in the U.S.
J
An agreement amongst multiple parties to work together and combine resources for a specific development, property, or portfolio.
L
A law specifying the duties and obligations of tenants and landlords in the U.K (see Section 25 of the Act). Gives most tenants the right to stay in a property unless certain criteria are met by the landlord, and the right to compensation even if those criteria are satisfied.
An equal weighted average between burden of expenses and long-term NOI growth. Comparing the burden of expenses and long-term NOI growth (a signal of favorable landlord economics) captures which sectors should be more able to pass on “E”-related costs. Property sectors with better demand fundamentals, more net leases, and less commoditized real estate are less likely to bear “E” expenses.
Fees paid by a landlord to an agent (i.e., broker) that has helped secure a lease from a tenant.
A metric used to provide a snapshot of a company’s or asset’s balance sheet strength by measuring the amount of debt carried by the entity relative to the market value of its assets. Green Street commonly cites “net leverage” and net Debt-to-EBITDA to assess a company’s leverage.
A type of building that is a combination of health care space, lab space, and/or office space which life science organizations utilize to conduct scientific research. Building exteriors resemble offices, while the interior is a mix between a lab space and an office.
A type of strip center that is typically comprised of upscale retailers as well as significant dining and entertainment options. Most lifestyle centers have an outdoor setting, many of which attempt to replicate a “Main Street” feel.
Like-for-like metrics compare financial results in one period with those for the previous period, taking into account the same assets between periods. See also Same-Store.
A type of business structure managed by one or more general partners who are fully liable for its debts and obligations, while the limited partners are liable only to the extent of their investments.
Refers to the ease in which an asset can be transacted without affecting its price. Cash tends to be the most liquid asset, while more complex investments (i.e oil and gas partnerships) may possess liquidity risk. See also Liquidity Risk.
The risk that an asset cannot be transacted with ease without accepting a substantial discount.
Displays the outstanding loan balance at maturity date (applies to balloon loans).
A loan’s age, also referred as Months on Book. Usually expressed as the number of months since origination date.
The period of time during which investors are prohibited from redeeming shares. Often used with regards to hedge fund investments or initial public offerings.
Inflation expectations from year 6 into perpetuity. Green Street utilizes public market pricing through TIPS and swaps to estimate country-level long-term inflation expectations.
Represents present value of the loan cashflows, calculated by discounting its loss adjusted principal and interest cashflows at the loan’s interest rate.
A measure which quantifies the severity of the loss at the loan’s resolution date for a defaulted loan. Its value also ranges from 0% (zero loss) to 100% (zero recovery).
Markets where new development is a constant competitive threat to existing properties due to abundant amounts of land and limited regulatory challenges. Commercial real estate in low-barrier markets generally produces lower long-term NOI growth relative to high-barrier markets, but rents also tend to be less volatile.
M
A broad term referring to a national or global topic.
A cell tower with large poles, typically >100 ft tall, designed to provide wireless coverage over large areas and can typically house 1-4 wireless carriers.
A large retail property that can be located in town or a suburban location. These are known as malls in the U.S.
The charge that a fund manager imposes to cover operating expenses.
A Green Street proprietary metric used to measure the value added from a REIT’s management team. MVA is the difference between NAV-per-share growth and the leveraged growth in same-store portfolio value over a specific time period.
Also known as Manufactured Home Parks, these are communities that provide an affordable living alternative to renting an apartment or buying/renting a traditional site-built home. The community owner typically owns the land and improvements (e.g., amenities and utility hookups), while the resident owns the home and pays monthly rent for the pad on which it sits.
Occurs when a broker demands that the holder of a margin loan put up extra cash or securities as collateral for that loan, usually because the value of the securities purchased with the loan has declined significantly. See also Margin Loan.
A line of credit from a broker that provides an investor with capital for the purpose of purchasing securities. The value of the securities an investor holds in a margin account must be maintained above a minimum level in order for the loan to remain in good standing or else a Margin Call will be issued. See also Margin Call.
The difference between the outstanding principal and the current value of a fixed-rate bond based on prevailing interest rates. The mark-to-market value can be thought of as interest savings (when the coupon is lower than market interest rates) or added interest expense (when the coupon exceeds market interest rates).
Green Street’s perceived risk associated with a particular market under coverage. Market Betas are calculated using a combination of M-RevPAF and asset value volatility.
A cap rate primarily used in the hotel and apartment sectors. Similar to Economic Cap Rate in that a deduction to NOI is made to reflect cap-ex incurred by owners to maintain their properties. A key difference is that the standardized cap-ex reserves commonly used by market participants are far smaller than the cap-ex historically incurred by public and private owners in both property types.
Green Street calculates proprietary long-term growth rates expressed as letter grades for the 50 U.S. and 30 Pan-European markets in our coverage universe. Each grade is calculated by assessing ten key metrics relevant to each sector. Grades can range from A++ to D. and are meant to represent relative long-term rent growth potential vs. local inflation.
A Green Street proprietary estimate for the liquidity risk (the ease to which an asset can be transacted) present in a particular market. Markets with higher transaction volumes score better because it is easier for an investor to buy and sell within that market.
A measure of the health of a market (or sector) that combines two key operating metrics (effective market rents and occupancy) into a single value.
A measure of the health of a market (or sector) that combines two key operating metrics (effective market rents and occupancy) into a single value. In Europe, this is known as Market Revenue per Available Metre (M-RevPAM Growth).
The expected unleveraged buy and hold return after considering market liquidity and risk. Green Street’s IRR is a useful metric for comparing prospective returns on real estate with yields on alternative investments, such as investment-grade and high-yield bonds. See also Unlevered IRR.
A regulatory framework designed to increase transparency in the EU’s financial markets by focusing on reporting and disclosure standards in financial and equity trading. The parties most impacted by these regulations are investment, wealth, and asset managers operating in the fixed income, derivative, and commodity markets. The directive, which took effect Nov. 1, 2007, created a heavy compliance burden on banks, fund managers, brokers and others financial firms. MiFID includes investor-protection measures, provisions requiring pre- and post-trade disclosures, and definitions of trading venues. MiFID II took effect in January 2018 to strengthen investor protection particularly for OTC trading, dark pools, and high-frequency trading. MiFID II introduces significant rules and requirements for product governance, transaction reporting, and the unbundling of research from execution services.
A common hedge-fund structure used to create a single investment vehicle for both U.S. and non-U.S investors. A manager sets up two separate vehicles – one based in the U.S. and one outside the U.S. – which serve as the only investors for a third non-U.S. fund. The two smaller entities are known as feeder funds, while the large offshore vehicle acts as the master fund. The purpose of such an arrangement is to create a single investment vehicle for both U.S. and non-U.S. investors.
The smallest amount an investor is permitted to contribute as an initial investment to an investment fund.
A specialized niche of REITs that don’t own real estate, but instead provide financing by originating mortgage loans and mortgage-backed securities to generate interest income.
N
An association representing publicly traded real estate owners in the U.S. See also EPRA.
The mark-to-market value of a company’s assets and liabilities calculated by applying an estimate of private market valuation to the real estate portfolio and all other assets, deducting all marked-to-market liabilities and preferred equity. NAV is often represented on a per-share basis. See NAV Methodology Quick Guide.
A metric designed to measure the economics of a lease after taking into consideration applicable operating costs, leasing commissions and tenant improvements
The time-weighted average of Net Initial Yield and Reversionary Yield. The yield an investor would receive based on leases in place today, through to their next review or break, time-weighted with the yield based on Estimated Rental Value. Includes an assumption for downtime after lease expiry and the denominator includes Purchaser’s Costs.
A measure that captures the external growth (or contraction) of a company’s asset base through allocating capital (or shrinking the business) for a given period of time and typically represented in percentage terms relative to asset size.
The benchmark real estate yield and valuation measure throughout Europe. Green Street’s Net Initial Yields are calculated as Net Rental Income divided by the market value or price of a property plus Purchaser’s Costs. See also EPRA Net Initial Yield.
A measure of property’s leasable area that typically excludes common areas and mechanical space.
Property or portfolio revenue less operating expenses, presented on a cash basis. Revenue is predominantly rents and tenant reimbursements; expenses include property taxes, utilities, maintenance costs and property-level personnel.
Typically calculated as Rent Receivable less Ground Rent (if applicable). Net rent is based on a cash concept, so would equal 0 if a tenant was in a free rent period.
Gross Rental Income minus Property Outgoings. This is the closest comparable to Net Operating Income (NOI) in the U.S, but is accrual-based and includes the amortized cost of free rent and leasing commissions.
Data centers that act as key hubs for the Internet and connectivity. Network-dense data centers are rare, hard-to-replicate, and exhibit strong pricing power.
A hierarchical system for dividing up the economic territory of the EU and the UK. Regions range from NUTS 1 to NUTS 3 and are a geocode standard for referencing the subdivisions of countries for statistical purposes.
Represents the expected unleveraged first year yield a property buyer expects to realize on their investment. Like bond yields, nominal cap rates move inversely with property values. A primary flaw to nominal cap rates is that cap-ex – the substantial cost borne by commercial property owners over long holding periods – is ignored in its calculation. As a result, “economic cap rates” are a better measure of investment yields. A nominal cap rate is calculated as: Nominal Net Operating Income (NOI) / Property Value.
A measure of cash flow that deducts cash taxes as well as a normalized cap-ex reserve from corporate-level EBITDA (i.e., after G&A). Intended to be used as an “apples-to-apples” cash flow metric for comparing Hotel C Corp and Hotel REIT valuations.
O
The premium or discount ascribed to a company’s asset base that is implied by the current share price compared to Green Street’s assessment of asset value. Observed premiums/discounts in the public market have historically been reliable predictors of future changes in private-market prices. Also referred to as Observed Premium/ (Discount) to Assets.
A ratio which expresses a retailer’s total cost of occupancy (sum of minimum rents, percentage rents, common area maintenance, and real estate tax recovery) as a percentage of tenant sales. Stabilized occupancy cost ratios range from 12-16% for most mall tenants. In general, higher productivity tenants can support higher occupancy cost ratios.
The total costs incurred by a tenant to occupy space at a property, which includes a sum of minimum rents, percentage rents, common area maintenance, and real estate tax recovery.
The ratio or percentage of rented or physically occupied space to the total amount of available space.
Represent an equity interest in the UP-REIT that is almost always exchangeable for common shares on a 1:1 basis. These ownership units allow for investors to contribute to a REIT and get diversification benefits of owning a much a larger portfolio without having to pay taxes unless those shares are sold. When OP units are converted to common shares, capital gains are triggered, so such exchanges are typically made only when the shares are going to be sold immediately. See also UP-REIT.
A type of financial derivative that gives parties the right to buy, or sell, a specific asset or security at a specified price by a pre-set date. See also Derivative.
A loan’s origination year.
P
The cash rent that is currently in-place and a landlord receives for a property today. See Headline Rent.
Any limited partnership, trust or company that operates as an investment fund and is exempt from SEC registration under the Investment Company Act of 1940.
A company or individual that manages capital or a portfolio on behalf of an investment fund.
A strip center comprised primarily of big-box retail tenants (Best Buy, Home Depot, Target, etc.) and typically has a limited amount of space dedicated to smaller tenants.
A data center in which the tenant, rather than the landlord, is responsible for building out the data center infrastructure. From the landlord’s perspective, powered-base building development costs run a few hundred dollars per sq. ft., compared to $1,200+ per sq. ft. for a fully built-out data center. Powered-base space/buildings are commonly leased on a triple-net basis.
Represents the cap rate ascribed to the core real estate segment in companies that operate in multiple real estate segments.
The hypothetical yield for a top-quality, freehold interest in a relatively new property located in a prime location, and fully leased at current market rent (i.e. “rack rented”) to a good quality tenant under a long lease.
Structured securities that promise hedge-fund returns (minus a 1% to 2% fee) without risking an investor’s principal. Offer investors a safe haven from stock- or bond-market volatility, while providing a way for risk-averse investors to invest in assets that would otherwise be of concern to them.
A business entity that buys illiquid stakes in privately held companies, sometimes by taking on large amounts of debt through a leveraged buyout. Similar to hedge funds, these vehicles are structured as private investment partnerships in which only qualified investors may participate.
Security issues that are exempt from public-registration provisions in section 4-2 of the Securities Act of 1933. An example is shares of a hedge fund, where offerings are private placements and generally open to a few investors rather than the general public.
Also known as “public, non-traded REITs”, private REITs sell stock to investors and own/operate commercial real estate portfolios. Private REIT shares are typically sold to retail investors through commission-based financial planners as shares of these companies are not freely traded on stock exchanges.
A measure which quantifies the likelihood of a loan defaulting, its value ranges from 0% (low risk loan) to 100% (high risk loan).
An amendment in California enacted in 1978 that limits the tax rate on real estate. The proposition decreased property taxes by assessing property values at their 1975 value and restricted annual increases of assessed value to an inflation factor, not to exceed 2% per year. It also prohibited reassessment of a new base year except for: a) a change in ownership, or b) the completion of new construction.
Cost to the landlord of operating a property or portfolio of properties. Includes Service Charge expense (generally the largest component, often broken out separately), Ground Rent (where applicable), and amortization of Free Rent, Tenant Improvements borne by the landlord, and Leasing Commissions (if not already reflected in Gross Rental Income).
The assumed or actual transaction cost to a buyer of an individual property. Purchaser’s costs typically includes transfer tax/stamp duty, agent’s fees, legal and due diligence, and VAT on fees.
A form of off-campus student housing that is amenity-rich, similar to apartments but with more bedrooms.
Q
Any individual whose investment portfolio is valued at $5 million or more, or any company that owns or manages at least $25 million of investments.
R
The liquidation of shares or interests in an investment fund.
A charge, intended to discourage withdrawals, that a fund manager levies against investors when they cash in their shares before a specified date.
The amount of advance notice that an investor must give a fund manager before cashing in shares of the fund. Notification is usually required in writing.
The most common of the industrial property types. These properties are similar in function to larger distribution centres, but are small and more easily divisible into spaces to accommodate tenants distributing locally.
Tracks, simplifies, and compares “green” regulations across markets in the U.S. and Europe. Markets were scored 0-100 depending on the severity and thoroughness of regulations. Property sectors in more heavily regulated markets will face greater and more immediate “E” compliance costs than those with fewer in-place or considered regulations. Represents 30% of Green Street’s “E” Sensitivity Score.
A pricing model that compares security prices to gain a positive spread in total returns by buying the cheap security and selling the expensive security. Green Street employs a relative valuation approach when ascribing recommendations.
The spread between lease rates on expiring leases and the rates on new leases, often measured on a cash and GAAP basis. The metric measures rent growth from the time the lease was initially signed offset by rent bumps that occurred during the course of the lease. Cash releasing spreads reflect the last cash payment of the expiring lease versus the first cash payment after the renewal. GAAP releasing spreads refer to change in average lease rate upon renewal and therefore as reported in U.S. GAAP financial statements.
A process in the United Kingdom by which rental payments are adjusted on a periodic basis. Most leases are upwards only and set to the higher of the market rent or the current rent being paid by the tenant.
A report that provides detailed information about a leased property, its tenant(s), and rents. Rent rolls can be constructed for a single property or an entire property portfolio.
The estimated costs to construct, at current prices, a building with equal utility to the building being appraised. Replacement cost can be calculated as Land Value + Building Costs inclusive of all hard and soft costs.
A grouping of retail warehouses, grocery stores, and/or small shops. Similar to U.S. strip centers.
A single-tenant, large-format store generally located in an edge of town or suburban area. These are called “bulky goods” retailers in the U.K and known as “big box” stores (e.g. Costco or Best Buy) in the U.S.
A metric used for the hotel sector that combines occupancy and rental rates in a single value to measure operating performance. Its calculation is closely tied to the M-RevPAF concept used across sectors. See also M-RevPAF.
The potential increase in total rent, from marking leases to market and increasing occupancy to 100%, shown on a percentage basis.
Estimated Rental Value for a property divided by its cost or value. Known as the hypothetical yield for a property fully leased at market rents.
The expected return on a theoretical risk-free investment, typically a government-issued bond.
A professional organization headquartered in London that enforces standards in the valuation, management and development of land, real estate, construction and infrastructure. The body is in charge of setting guidelines. Its approach results in unduly slow reported changes to asset values and therefore properties valued following these guidelines will not be marked to a rapidly changing market value.
S
Properties held for the full length of two accounting periods (e.g. one quarter as compared with the same quarter of the previous year, or one year versus the prior year). Same-store metrics compare sales, financial results, etc. in one period with those for the previous period, taking into account the same number of properties with no new ones added. Known as Like-for-Like in the U.K
A Green Street proprietary framework designed to rank property sector prospective returns based on informational advantages by focusing on long-term expectations particularly for cap-ex, NOI growth, and risk.
Expenses incurred by a landlord that are billed to the tenant in order to recover all, or a portion, of the landlord’s Property Outgoings. These can include the cost of common area maintenance (CAM), insurance, property management, and sometimes utilities.
SFR properties are single-family homes (usually detached structures) that are rented out to tenants and are often found in suburban neighborhoods.
A small antenna typically installed on a public utility pole or right-of-way that helps reduce capacity needs in high-trafficked mobile usage areas.
Specialty industrial properties include manufacturing (“Heavy Industrial”), refrigeration & cold-storage, telecom (“Data Centers”), and truck terminals.
Development that has commenced prior to a lease agreement being signed in relation to that development.
The difference in price or yield between two securities. It also refers to the return from a given investment product, such as a hedge fund, versus the return of a benchmark such as the S&P 500 index.
For an investment portfolio, it measures the variation of returns around the portfolio’s mean-average return. In other words, it expresses an investment’s historical volatility. The further the variation from the average return, the higher the standard deviation. See also Volatility.
A generic term applied to retail properties that are not traditional malls or factory outlet centers. Strip center properties generally fall into two broad categories – 1) grocery anchored shopping centers and 2) power centers.
A Green Street proprietary assumption for non-frequent capital expenditure (as a % of NOI) used as a key input in developing IRR estimates. Also referred to as maintenance capex.
A type of residential property primarily used for housing university and college students.
Markets scattered across the southern U.S. and characterized by a growing tech presence, higher than average job growth, and a business-friendly environment. Notable Sun Belt markets include Atlanta, Austin, Charlotte, Nashville, and Raleigh.
A type of bias that occurs when an individual mistakes a successful group as a representative sample of the entire group without regard to those that have gone bust. Survivorship bias can result in the overestimation of historical performance.
T
Gross leasing activity for a given period of time; known as gross absorption in the U.S.
Incentives offered by a landlord to a prospective tenant to sign a lease. These incentives can include periods of free rent, tenant improvements, tenant reimbursements, etc.
Costs to improve space to be occupied by a tenant. Investors are most concerned with the portion of these costs that are borne by the landlord as part of the inducements to complete a lease deal.
A valuation approach initially based on a macro thesis. The impacts of that thesis are subsequently analyzed at the universe level, the sector level, and, finally, the company level.
The growth in value of equity over a specified period, assuming dividends are reinvested.
Green Street proprietary scores that measure the strength of demand in the trade area surrounding a mall or strip center property by combining various demographic factors, including income, population density, education, and cost of living. The trade area for Power Centers, Neighborhood Centers and Street Retail is a three-miles radius. TAP Scores range from 1 to 100 and are available for every property owned by mall and strip center REITs in Green Street’s U.S. coverage universe.
Properties owned with the intent to sell in a relatively short period of time.
A type of lease structure where the the tenant agrees to pay all expenses associated with the property (e.g., real estate taxes, insurance, repairs and maintenance). In most cases net rent should be roughly equal to NOI.
A form of rent that is calculated as a portion of the revenue or sales generated from the leased property (usually on an agreed percentage of turnover basis). Also referred to as percentage rent.
U
A U.K. yield quoted as Gross Rental Income / (Property Value + Purchaser’s Costs).
The discount rate that sets estimated discounted cash flows equal to the initial investment. By combining current cap rates, a cap-ex reserve, intermediate cash flow growth, and long-term growth expectations, it is possible to estimate the unlevered returns that real estate investors can expect to achieve. Green Street’s unlevered IRR does not include adjustments for liquidity or market risk. See also Market Risk-Adjusted IRR.
A REIT structure created to facilitate the conversion of private real estate companies to public vehicles on a tax-efficient basis. In an UP-REIT, a partnership owns the real estate assets and the partnership is owned jointly by a REIT and other investors (OP Unit holders) who usually contributed properties.
V
The expected profit of a development project after adjusting for risk. Value creation is one of two key components (CIP is the other) in valuing development in an NAV model.
A tool that looks at the last known sales price of a property and increases or decreases it by Green Street’s market-level Commercial Property Price Indices to determine a starting point of estimated current value. This is not an appraisal or formal opinion of value.
An industry metric used to compare real estate values across different portfolios. Green Street uses value per square foot/metre for four of the major sectors (office, industrial, malls and strip centers) and value per unit for apartments. We also use value per key in the lodging industry and value per bed in student housing.
Investment funds given to corporate start-ups and other high-risk enterprises by investors who seek above-average returns while willing to take illiquid positions.
A term akin to vacant space.
The likelihood that an instrument’s value will change over a given period of time, usually measured as beta or standard deviation.
W
The premium or discount (%) that should be ascribed to a company due to factors not captured in an NAV analysis and a function of four key inputs: franchise value, balance sheet risk, corporate governance, and overhead. Corporate governance is no longer included in the US model, but is a component of the pricing model for Europe in order to derive the ‘going-concern’ value. Green Street separately estimates odds of corporate events and that further serves to determine a warranted share price.
Green Street’s estimate of fair value for a company’s stock relative to its peers.
The cash allowance banks set aside to cover impaired loans. CECL requires banks to forecast losses on the life of a loan as soon as they originate and record it on their balance sheet. The new accounting standard is expected to increase the allowance for credit/loan losses.
The estimated cost for a company to raise capital that includes all sources of capital including common equity, preferred equity, and debt. Unlike the WACC calculations for companies in most industries, REITs do not benefit from an interest tax shield, which should encourage companies to use less debt than companies in other industries. Fortunately, NAV premiums/discounts provide clear cost-of-capital signals for REITs.
The average remaining months until the loan maturity date for a portfolio, weighted by loan balance.
A type of Enterprise Data Center specifically catering to larger tenants. Leases tend to be longer (5-10 years), and are usually greater than half a megawatt. Tenants lease entire suites or buildings as opposed to racks or cabinets in a multi-tenant suite.
Z
Rent paid by a retail tenant in the Zone A portion of its space. This is the first 20 feet of store depth from the entrance (i.e. the most valuable selling space).